Six of the eight planets in our solar system have natural satellites, commonly known as moons. Mercury and Venus are the only planets that do not have any moons. Some planets have many moons. For example, Jupiter has 115 and Saturn has 293 known moons. The solar system is generally divided into inner and outer planets, with the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter separating the two groups. The inner planets or terrestrial planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. Among these, Earth has one moon and Mars has two moons, called Phobos and Deimos. On October 20, 2026, Japan launched a spacecraft as part of the Martian Moons eXploration (MMX) mission to study the moons of Mars. The mission will also collect rock and dust samples from Phobos and bring them back to Earth for scientific analysis. It is expected to last five years, with the samples scheduled to return to Earth in 2031. This is a unique mission and scientists expect that studying these samples will help add to their understanding of Mars and its moons. The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) is leading this MMX mission, an international project to study the Martian moons. The mission involves collaboration with the United States (US), France, Germany and Australia, along with contributions from the European Space Agency (ESA). At end of the mission, Australia will host the sample-return landing, where the spacecraft’s sample capsule would be arriving. MMX: A mission to learn about the origins of Martian moonsFor the launch, Japan used its H3 rocket. The main purpose of this mission is to bring at least 10 grams of soil and rock back to Earth by 2031. After reaching the Martian orbit, the spacecraft will deploy a French-German rover to survey Phobos before collecting samples. It will also study Deimos, before beginning its return journey. It is expected that the samples will reveal whether Phobos and Deimos formed from debris created by an asteroid impact on Mars or are asteroids captured by Martian gravity billions of years ago. In general, observations made at various stages of the mission, along with analyses of the rocks and soil composition from Phobos, could shed light on the early history of the solar system and the conditions that may have led to the emergence of life on Earth.The MMX spacecraft is expected to reach Mars in August 2027 and begin detailed observations of Phobos. Around 2029, it will deploy the French-German Idefix rover, which will explore the moon’s surface for approximately 100 days. A detailed examination of the terrain will help identify suitable sampling locations. The main spacecraft will then make two brief landings on Phobos to collect at least 10 grams of surface and subsurface material using specialised sampling mechanisms. The lander is expected to spend about two hours drilling into the surface and collecting samples before launching back into space. After collecting the samples, the spacecraft will continue observing the Martian system, including Deimos, before departing in 2030 for its return journey. In 2031, a dedicated sample-return capsule will separate from the spacecraft, enter Earth’s atmosphere and land in Australia. The recovered samples will then be taken for laboratory analysis. Mars exploration at presentAs of October 2026, two robotic rovers remain operational on the Martian surface: the NASA’s Perseverance and Curiosity systems. Perseverance is exploring ancient environments, searching for signs of past microbial life and collecting rock and soil samples. Curiosity is investigating Martian geology and accessing whether the planet once had conditions suitable for microbial life. In recent past, there have been several other NASA surface missions, including China’s Zhurong rover. However, these are not operational anymore. NASA’s Ingenuity helicopter also remains on Mars, but its flight operations ended in January 2024.Also read: New Space Race: Artemis II and the US-China Rivalry Over the MoonAt present, there are six operational orbiters around Mars: NASA’s 2001 Mars Odyssey and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO), the European Space Agency’s Mars Express and the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO), the UAE’s Hope orbiter, and China’s Tianwen-1 orbiter. These spacecrafts study Mars’s surface, geology, atmosphere and climate. Some also function as relay satellites, facilitating communications between Earth and Mars surface missions that remain operational. NASA’s MAVEN orbiter ceased operations in 2026. Over the years, these missions have significantly improved our scientific understanding of Mars.Challenges to human exploration of MarsTo date, neither the US, under its Artemis programme, nor China or SpaceX has officially announced a definitive timeline for a crewed landing on Mars. However, all have plans aimed at advancing human exploration of the red planet. Realising this dream is a major scientific technological and financial challenge. Japan’s mission to Phobos is therefore an important step towards the broader goal of human exploration of the Martian system.It is important to note that the average distance between Earth and Earth’s moon is about 384,400 km, and a journey takes roughly three days. In contrast, the distance between Earth and Mars varies considerably, from around 54.6 million km at its closest approach to more than 401 million km at its greatest distance. A one-way journey to Mars typically takes around six to nine months, depending on the trajectory and the relative positions of the two planets. Launch opportunities are governed by orbital alignment windows that occur approximately every 26 months. Consequently, a human mission to Mars, including the return journey and time spent on the planet, could take around 30 to 36 months, depending on the mission design and orbital mechanics.Resources on Martian surface and their potential usesMars contains several potentially valuable minerals, metals, water-bearing deposits and atmospheric resources that could support future human missions. Iron- and silicon-bearing minerals are known to exist on the Martian surface, while the possibility of deposits of precious metals such as gold, platinum and iridium has also been discussed.The potential utility of these resources can be considered from two perspectives. First, their use in supporting the survival and long-term presence of human explorers on Mars. Second, the possibility of extracting and transporting valuable minerals back to Earth through robotic or human missions. For human exploration, the most immediately valuable resources are likely to be water ice, atmospheric carbon dioxide and the minerals in Martian soil. These could also be important for producing return propellant. Regolith, or the soil and dust on Martian surface, and some other common minerals, could support habitat construction and maintenance activities. India’s Mars Orbiter MissionAgainst the backdrop of growing international interest in Mars and its moons, there is a need to assess India’s position in Mars exploration. In November 2013, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) launched India’s first Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), which proved highly successful. India received worldwide recognition for becoming the first country to reach Martian orbit successfully on its first attempt. Designed for a six-month mission, the spacecraft continued to operate for more than eight years before the mission ended in 2022. ISRO has made the scientific data collected during the mission available to registered users and has compiled a comprehensive “Mars Atlas” based on these observations. MOM has contributed to our understanding of Martian soil mineralogy, the composition of the Martian exosphere and the optical depth of the Martian atmosphere. The mission also captured rare images of the far side of Deimos, further demonstrating India’s capabilities in interplanetary observation.Mangalyaan-2Since 2013, there have been six to seven launch opportunities to Mars, occurring approximately every 26 months. India’s next Mars mission would happen during 2030. It is expected to be an orbiter-and-lander-mission that would undertake orbital dust studies, radio occultation (RO) and few other experiments. This mission will mark India’s first attempt at landing on another planet.It is evident that ISRO presently has many important programmes to attend to. This may partly explain the prolonged gap between India’s first and second proposed missions to Mars. India’s first mission to Mars has demonstrated its ability to undertake a complex interplanetary mission at a relatively low cost. However, despite establishing its credibility in this field, India has not been able to pursue its Mars programme in a systematic and continual manner. The success of MOM undoubtedly enhanced ISRO’s global standing. However, the world had already begun to recognise India’s space capabilities following the success of the Chandrayaan-1 mission in 2008 and several other innovative initiatives. The challenge now is to build on this established reputation through a sustained programme of scientific exploration and technological advancement, rather than relying on individual mission successes to reinforce India’s global standing.Why India needs a long-term Mars exploration programmeThe time has come for India to recognise that space is no longer merely a domain for technological demonstrations, global visibility or a tool for the enhancement of soft power status. Beyond its economic potential, space is also a domain of scientific discovery and strategic capability. This requires sustained engagement and continuity in space exploration. India’s Mars programme, however, reflects a lack of continuity in planetary science. A sustained programme could have accelerated research, enabled the development of more advanced technologies and strengthened India’s expertise in interplanetary missions and the management of planetary resources. Also read: ISRO’s Employees Must Be Heard, Govt’s Plans to Transfer Tech to the Private Sector Raises Valid ConcernsISRO now needs to move beyond the approach of undertaking occasional, complex missions like MOM. If India is to remain competitive with other major Mars-faring nations, it needs a clearly defined, time-bound roadmap for exploration. The issue is not simply the number of launch windows missed over the past decade, but also the cumulative loss of time in developing scientific expertise, advancing mission technologies and maintaining institutional continuity. ISRO must therefore plan and execute planetary exploration missions within a long-term strategic framework, with clearly identified objectives, milestones and timelines. The same policy should be adopted for other important projects. Ajey Lele is a researcher and is the author of the book Institutions That Shaped Modern India: ISRO.